This has really been an interesting and thought-provoking thread. I have done a little research on the topic, and thought I would throw in some additional comments.
Actually, maps have been around for a really long time. Your assumption that "they would not have had maps" really depends on the level of techonological advancement of the civilization in question. For a nomadic, pastoral or tribal culture, one without a written language, it's probably true that they would not have maps of the sort we think of today. However, many of those cultures did have very sophisticated ways of navigating, trail marking, etc.Originally Posted by savedbygrace
On the topic of Roman roads...it's true that a large, well funded civilization would be required to actually construct the roads. A culture that had slave labor, or a standing army that needed to be occupied, would almost definitely build such paved roads as the Romans built. These roads were multi-purpose: more efficient transport of armies, yes--but also efficient means of transporting merchandise, raw materials and resources, and important rulers and dignitaries were also very important motivations. Also, one should not assume that because the roads may have been built to keep the armies occupied, the engineering was of lower quality. Roman engineering was EXTREMELY sophisticated, and after the collapse of the Roman Empire, their techniques and knowledge were not surpassed until the 18th-19th centuries. While some Roman roads succumbed to time and the elements, there are thousands of miles of Roman roads still in existence today, and Roman roads were used quite extensively throughout the Medieval period.
Roman roads were known to cut through terrain obstacles, but did not always do so. I'm not sure there is documentary evidence for why theywould do it sometimes and not others (I'd have to do more research on that). There were other societies that also built good roads--there is evidence in Great Britain for sandstone roads paved with clay-gypsum mortar that date back to well before the Roman occupation. Also, the Persian Empire is famous for The Royal Road and other roadway systems, which could allow a courier to travel over 2K km in six days. Additionally, there is evidence that tar was used in road paving in Baghdad in the 8th century (due to the easy availability of naturally occurring petroleum deposits). The main thing all these cultures had in common was that they were large, they had achieved a measure of peace in their realm, and they were reasonably wealthy at the time of road construction.
An area that has been wracked by war, or constant conflicts between tribes, petty kingdoms, etc. would not be capable of building a road system simply because there would be too much disruption, and too much consumption of resources. Constant war would also cause destabilized government, and a constant struggle just to survive, meaning technological and scientific advances (and the inventions accompanying them) would be set aside or abandoned entirely. This would also have an effect on the types of roads available.
Finally, there are many types of unpaved roads, and many ways of paving roads as well. Many forms of minerals have been used in the construction of roads. The Romans made a form of concrete out of lime, volcanic ash, and gravel/sand, that in many ways was superior to modern concrete. Wood planks and logs have been used, bricks have been used (usually in cities, not in highways), etc. Ridgeways, unpaved roads going along the tops of hills, were extremely common in the ancient and medieval periods, and some are still in use today as leisure walking paths. Secondary roads did not just arise from animal paths, but also formed as paths for driving herd animals to market, or as pathways winding between fields.
Hope some of this is useful to someone. One last thing--people often assume that ancient cultures had less technology or were less capable than our modern society. Nothing could be further from the truth. The Romans, the Persians, the Moors, various Chinese Dynasties, the Greeks, the Mesopotamian cultures (Babylonia, Sumeria, etc.)--ALL these civilizations achieved amazing things, and we are still uncovering and rediscovering elements of their technology and scientific knowledge. Even in the Middle Ages, heck even in the so-called DARK Ages, people had access to a lot more sophisticated devices and processes than the average person is aware of. I suggest some of the following if you are interested in this subject:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_technology
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/ancienttech/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions
Of course, it's usually best to follow up a Wikipedia article (or any encyclopedia, for that matter) with finding the sources listed as references (believe it or not, many Wikipedia articles are well-researched and have extensive references).
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